Micro Level Trends – Social Economic Indicators – Car Colours: Research

As previously recognised, the use of “bright” new car colours as that of an economic indicator has various era specific examples both truism and falsity. This conclusion reached by the as comprehensive as possible description of car colour applications over the 20^th and very early 21^st centuries, on a decade by decade basis.

This overall historical picture created via a mix of inherent general knowledge of automotive and social history meshed with a dedicated research exercise, as explained below.

For the sake of clarity, it is worth explaining how the previous graphic of chronologically presented popular colours – which itself sought to visually concentrate the text – was evolved with the overall description.

Approach -

The intent was to ratify, dismiss and add-to inherent knowledge. Achieved via a critical look at the offered and popularly preferred colours of those mass-market car models which individually and en mass made up the great majority of popular private purchases.

To verify each product's life-span, its (as feasibly as possible) official 'ex-factory' colours, and to contextualise them via a time-line of prevailing economic backgrounds using the S&P (later S&P 500).

The attached graphic demonstrates.

Economic Layer:

The Standard and Poor's index specifically used, as opposed to FTSE or any Euro index, given the over-whelming economic impact of the USA upon European fortunes, including Eastern Europe prior to the 'iron curtain' era.

Layered over the Standard and Poor's chart are the three cyclical phases.

“Technical Recession” of the index are shaded in grey, followed by estimated periods of 'Main Street's' own “Contracted Consumption”, followed by return to “Fully Functioning”; each shown with appropriate initials: 'TR' / 'CC' / 'FF'

Purchase Layer:

Super-imposed upon this 110 year time-scale are the product life-spans of the best selling vehicle models. In order to maintain an “apples to apples” consistency, those multi-generational nameplates are omitted in preference for only those specific models (eg mk1, mk2 etc) which had a major impact on car buying habits and so colour preferences in their time

This used to create the previously shown simple colour schematic, which itself chronologically demonstrated the per region expansion-effect of the general 'colour swatch' (palette) available.

Popular Models:

Ford Model T (1908 – 1927) North America / UK

Black chassis, fenders, boards, coal scuttle, natural or black (wooden) wheels + body: oxford blue, ruby red, olive green; only from 1913 onward was black introduced..

The notion that Henry Ford said “any colour you want so long as its black”is considered an urban myth, since initial colours omitted black. Though latterly a completely black format for most cars, pick-ups and vans became common, to speed production process and reduce manufacturing costs was indeed the case, even from 1908 SOP specific customer paint requests were provided for as cost option or for fleet orders. Increased market competition (esp from Chevrolet) meant later production years saw a broader variety of standard ex-factory colours. However, the undoubted proliferation of black was deployed to suit the basic T's popular agricultural use (via conversion kits from light tractor to power generator).

Opel 5/12 PS (1911 – 1920) Germany / Europe

Black chassis, boards, and natural wood or black wheels, later colour matched + fenders, scuttle and body: black, mid grey, mid green, scarlet red, ruby red, oxford blue.

Peugeot Bébé [type BP1] (1913 – 1916) France / Europe

Black chassis, fenders, boards, wheels + body: black, mid grey, dark red, dark green, mid blue.

Many were repainted “French Blue” later to reflect the original design input of Ettore Bugatti and to mimic national race colours, aswell as other non-original colours.

Chevrolet 490 (1915 – 1922) North America

Black chassis, fenders, boards, scuttle and natural wood or black wheels, and early on majority black body. Soon after black scuttle with variety colours, thereafter phased-in colour matched parts, scuttle and body: black, dark grey, mid grey, dark green, mid green, ruby red, oxford blue.

Designed to compete against the Model T Ford but with increased equipment and paint options

Citroen Type A (1919 – 1921) France / Europe

Black chassis, fenders, boards and 'solid' black wheels, scuttle varied black to body colour, body: black, light grey, light beige, caramel brown, mid red, mid green, olive green, dark green, french blue. This car recognised as the first European vehicle manufactured in the large scale Ford-Taylorism manner, so necessarily painting bodies in large batches of small variety single colours.

Citroen Type B2 (1921 – 1926) France / Europe

Colours as above, but the handsome proportions of this model coupled with its 'solid' wheels and its very proliferation across France and Europe enabled the official application of light yellow, without appearing overwhelming.

Peugeot 'Quadrilette' (1921 -1924) France / Europe

Black chassis, fenders, boards, 'solid' wheels and scuttle varied black to body colour, body: black, grey, mid red, ruby red, mid green, dark green, oxford blue, french blue, caramel brown and light yellow (to match Citroen's B2).

Austin Seven (1922 – 1939) UK

Black chassis, fenders, running boards, wheels, body: black, grey, mid green, dark green, mid red, ruby red, mid blue, oxford blue, light beige. As popularity grew, the vehicle aged and price increased given 'inflation plus' margins, so fenders blended to body colour, greater two-tone applied.

Chevrolet Superior (1923 – 1926) North America

Black chassis, fenders, running boards, wheels, body: black, light grey, dark grey, mid green, olive green, dark green, mid red, mid blue,

Opel 4 PS 'Laubfrosche / Tree Frog' (1924 – 1931) Germany / Europe

Black chassis, fenders, running boards, wheels, body: mid green (for initial production ramp-up, hence nickname), with also black, light grey, dark grey, beige, brown, dark green, mid red.

Peugeot 5CV [type 172] (1925 – 1929) France / Europe

As a model line successor to Quadrilette, it utilised a similar range of colours.

Chevrolet AA / AB (1927-1928) North America

Chevrolet AC / AD (1928 – 1930)

Chevrolet AE / BA (1931 – 1932)

Black chassis, fenders, running boards, wheels, body: black, light grey, dark grey, mid green, olive green, dark green, mid red, ruby red, mid blue, dark blue.

This quickly year on year face-lifted series created technical and styling changes from 4-cylinder to 6-cylinder and body panel changes. But the paint choices remained very similar, GM seeking savings in paint procurement to off-set costs of more marketable alterations. Later white-wall tyres offered as cost option on deluxe variant, to better highlight same or contrasting wheel colours, a trickle-down trend from luxury cars; though small percentage of total volume produced.

Ford Model A (1928 – 1931) North America / UK / Europe

Black chassis, fenders, running boards, wheels, body (at SOP available in only four colours): black, dark grey, dark green, ruby red...later colours added of white, mid red, mid blue, oxford blue, dark blue., beige and brown, typically befitting the specific body type fitted, from a very broad variety of body styles.

Peugeot 201 (1929 – 1937) France / Europe

As successor to type 172, maintained similar colour palette, with greater application of single vehicle colour covering fenders, running boards and wheels; especially suited to its later aerodynamic alterations.

DKW F1 (1931 – 1932) Germany

DKW F2 (1932 – 1935)

Wooden chassis obscured (by low 'under-slung' stance) , black fenders, (no running boards needed given entry lowness), black wheels, body: black, dark grey, dark brown, white, light beige, mid green, mid red, ruby red, mid blue, dark blue. This wooden chassis, FWD car often had two-tone schemes applied given the separated fenders, yet also allowed for single colour scheme given their visual integration with the body.

Plymouth DeLuxe [PD/PE] (1933 – 1937) North America

Body colours: black, dark grey, light grey, dark blue, mid blue, dark green, mid green, dark red, mid brown, tan and yellow (for touring cabriolet). Increasing application of body colour to fenders.

Citroen Traction Avant (1934 – 1957) France / Europe

Black was the official ex-factory colour until 1953 – for production efficacy – but (like the Model T) a limited number of specials in other colours were provide at extra cost. Thereafter, depending upon variant type, a mixture of colours many provided. Although well integrated with the body, black fenders retained for many post '53 cars, no running boards on low-slung design. Body colours: black, dark grey, light grey, dark blue, mid blue, dark green, mid green and also off-white, red and yellow for cabriolet specials.

DKW F5 (1935 – 1936) Germany

DKW F7 (1937 – 1938)

Colours as above, but becoming more distinctively applied over front grille contrasting with greater use of chrome brightwork and two-tone, and more fade resistant applied to steel body skin panels versus previous fabric.

FIAT Cinquecento 'Topolino' A / B (1937 – 1949) Italy

Black the ex-factory colour for much of early production. Although fenders well integrated with the body, the convention for black fenders retained on this early series with different body colour. Body: black, dark grey, light grey, mid red, ruby red, light green, dark green, dark blue.

Volkswagen Type 1 'Kafer' / 'Beetle' (1938 – 1978) (EM until 2003) Germany / Other

Black the ex-factory colour for much of early production. However, even with thin running board, it was deemed that the rounded visually harmonious fenders allowed for a breaking of convention for black fenders. Body: black, dark grey, light grey, off-white , ruby red, dark green, dark blue. Brighter shades of red, blue and green (and white, grey) used initially for export models, later 1960s and 70s standard colours, specifically seen with yellow, orange and red adopted for the fashion orientated 'Jeans Beetle' in 1974

Citroen Deux Chevaux '2CV' (1948 – 1990) France / Europe

Much early production in dark grey, light grey. Followed by dark blue, very light blue in the 1950s and oatmeal brown and white in the 1960s. With the 1970s introducing red, green, yellow and orange. The 1980s saw increase in two-tone specials as the car became ironically a hyper-style totem such as the Spot (red and white, orange and white), Beachcomber (white and blue), Chic (white and black), cocorico (red, white and blue), Dolly (white and red, white and green), Hermes (brown) and Charleston (burgandy and black, dark green and black, grey and black and yellow and black). The last 'special' retro-esque scheme with black fenders (which never originally existed, bar some 'fourgonette' van models).

Morris Minor (1948 – 1971) UK / Commonwealth

Body: black, dark grey, mid grey, light grey, off-white, mid brown, dark brown, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue.

Ford '49 (1949 – 1951) North America / Other (Japan / S.America)

Body: black, dark grey, light grey, off-white, dark red, dark green, dark blue, tan brown

Ford '52 (1952 – 1954)

Body: black, dark grey, light grey, off-white, dark red, mid red, dark green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, dark brown, tan brown

Ford '55 (1955 – 1957)

Body: black, dark grey, light grey, off-white, dark red, mid red, dark green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, dark brown, tan brown. Increasing use of two-tone on higher trim variants.

Ford '57 (1957 - 1960)

Body: black, dark grey, light grey, off-white, beige, dark red, mid red, dark green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, dark brown, tan brown. Continued use of two-tone on higher trim variants, and triple-tone on specials.

Buick Special Mk 2 (1949 – 1958) North America / Other (esp Japan / S.America)

This progressive model series led and reflected rapidly shifting consumerism

“Standard A pillar” (1949 – 1953)

Body: black, dark grey, light grey, off-white, dark red, mid red, dark green, dark blue, mid blue, mid brown; so traditional colours exempting introduction of a two-tone coupe with use of chromed A-pillar strip as introductory visual device for new 'wrap-a-round' screen to come.

“Wrap-a-round” (1954 - 1958)

Body: continuation of previous palette, plus new light shades in sky blue, mint green, light yellow, cream etc; two tone schemes now applied optionally to sedan body-sides.; black or white roof also available for single colour car as more conservative contrast.

“Pillarless” (1955 - 1958)

Body: improved visual balance achieved on two-tone cars, with lower body colour (usually white or black) also applied to roof.

Ford Taunus 12M / 15M (1952 – 1959) Germany / Europe

Using a post-war modernised body with fully integrated fenders, body colours of: black, dark grey, mid grey, olive, mid blue. Ford of Germany's somewhat limited cost-centre resources and central self-management style, remote from Dearborne HQ, meant that executives followed a very practical 'no frills' Henry Ford approach, so limiting colour options (and well amortised production costs).

Opel Olympia Record (1953 – 1957) Germany / Europe

Likewise using a body with fully integrated fenders, this car was slightly more vibrant than the Taunus. Body colours: black, dark grey, mid grey, cream, olive, mid blue, mint green, tan brown. Further to Adam Open AG integration into General Motors, this model was much influenced by “new model year” annual trim and panel changes, and as a new middle-class status symbol, saw the application of two-tone paint schemes, mirroring the American trend.

Ford Popular (1953 – 1959) UK / Commonwealth

Introduced by Ford of Britain for the purpose of basic post WW2 mass mobility, it by comparison to other brands had distinctly 1930s mechanics and architecture; that basic ethos with limited 'pre-war' colour range: black, dark grey, light grey, ruby red, olive green, dark green, dark blue, followed later by light blue, mid green and cream.

Austin A30/35 (1951 – 1959) UK / Commonwealth

With integrated fenders, body colours: black, dark grey, light grey, ruby red, mid green, dark green, mid blue, dark blue, followed by light blue, mid red, mint green, cream and white.

Chevrolet Mk2 150/210 (1953 – 1957) North America

Body: black, dark grey, light grey, off-white, dark red, mid red, dark green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, dark brown, tan brown. Increasing use of two-tone on higher trim variants, especially so Bel Air.

Buick Mk2 Century (1954 -1958) North America

Body: black, dark grey, off-white, dark red, mid red, dark green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, dark brown, tan brown. Increasing use of two-tone on all body styles.

FIAT Nuovo 500 (1957 – 1975)

Body: black, dark grey, mid grey, light grey, butterscotch, cream, white, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, dark brown, tan brown, beige, light beige, light yellow, mid yellow, orange. Early series often with contrasting coloured wheels, typically cream or white.

Austin-Morris Mini (1959 – 2000) UK / Commonwealth / Europe

Body colours: black, dark grey, light grey, dark red, mid green, dark green, mid blue, dark blue, followed by light blue, mid red, mint green, cream and white. Two tone colour schemes (comprising usually white or black roof) typically used on Cooper and Cooper S performance series cars, and other more niche custom specials. Later limited edition specials with contrasting themed decals (advantage) or metallic colours (Mayfair, Park Lane, Knightsbridge, British Open Classic), and run-out specials such as 'Paul Smith' in purple and stripes.

Ford Anglia 105E (1959 – 1967) UK / Commonwealth

More stylistically daring than its 100E predecessor, the majority vehicles sold were of the basic type with a small painted grill panel and little if any of the obvious American-esque brightwork as popularly perceived by deluxe and super models. Nevertheless, whilst basic models had body colours of: black, white, dark blue, ruby red, light green, dark green, the deluxe included typically perceived 1950s colours of light blue and mint green. Two-tone colours were applied in 2 ways, divided by the waisteline, or on super trim-line cars applied to bodyside strip and roof.

Ford Falcon Mk 1 (1960 – 1963) North America / Australia

Body colours: black, dark grey, light grey, dark red, mid green, dark green, mid blue, dark blue, followed by light blue, mid red, mint green, cream and white. Two tone colour schemes

Chevrolet Biscayne Mk2 (1960 – 1964) North America

Body colours: black, dark grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, off-white and white.

Renault 4 [inc R3] (1961 – 1992) France / Europe / Other

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, light blue, mid blue, dark blue, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, off-white, white, dark brown, mid brown with tan brown, light red, , yellow, orange and bright green introduced in the 1970s and niche colours such as drab green deployed toward end of life-cycle.

Opel Kadett Series A (1962 – 1965) Germany / Europe / Other

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, cream, white.

Austin-Morris 1100/1300 (1962 – 1974) UK / Commonwealth / Europe

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey,dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, light beige, off-white, white with mustard, olive green and tangerine introduced later in the 1970s.

Plymouth Valiant Mk2 (1963 – 1966) North America / Australia

Body colours: black, light grey, mid red, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, off-white and white. Increased use of lighter shades.

Chevrolet Chevelle Mk1 and Mk2 (1963 – 1972) North America

Body colours: black, light grey, light silver,dark red, mid red, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, off-white, white, butterscotch yellow. Metallics introduced in later editions, primarily bronze and silver, as was mid yellow.

Ford Mustang Mk1, Mk 1 1/2 (1964 – 1968) North America

Body colours: black, light grey, light silver, mid red, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, light beige, off-white, white, light yellow. Ford introduced higher cost metallic shades of silver, blue and red by off-setting costs against Mustang's use of well amortised Falcon platform; so popularising and thus inducing economies of scale in metallic paints.

Chevrolet Chevy II Mk2 (1965 – 1967) North America

Body colours: black, light grey, light silver, mid red, mid green, light, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, off-white and white. Increased use of lighter shades.

Ford Fairlane Mk5 and Mk6 (1966 – 1969) North America

Body colours: black, light grey, light silver,dark red, mid red, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, light beige, off-white, white, light yellow. Ford utilises similar 'Mustang palette' for full=size Fairlane / Galaxy. Likewise introduced higher cost metallic shades of silver, blue and red by off-setting costs against full-size pricing elasticity; so assisting economies of scale in metallic paints.

Renault 16 (1965 – 1980) North America

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, beige, brown, off-white. By the mid '70s metallic colours introduced as upper-trim and new model year differentiation such as gold, silver, bronze and purple, with latterly white, light red, orange, yellow, bright green.

Ford Cortina [Taunus] Mk2 / Mk3 (1966 – 1976) UK / Germany / Europe

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, light beige, beige, off-white. Metallic colours introduced as upper-trim and new model year differentiation such as gold, silver, bronze and purple, later...white, light red, orange, yellow, bright green.

FIAT 124 (1966 – 1974) Italy / Europe / (Eastern Bloc)

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, beige, light beige, beige, off-white, white and light yellow.

Opel Kadett Series B and C (1966 – 1979) Germany / Europe

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, dark brown, mid brown, light beige, beige, off-white, white. Gold, bronze and silver metallics initially applied to coupe variant, followed later by green metallic for sedan, with solid yellow, orange and bright green introduced later in the 1970s.

Ford Escort Mk1 / Mk 2 (1968 – 1974) UK / Germany / Europe

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, light beige, beige, off-white, white with purple, light red, orange and bright green introduced later in the 1970s.

Renault 12 (1969 – 1981) France / Europe / (Eastern Bloc until 1999)

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, light beige, beige, off-white, white with light red, yellow, orange and bright green introduced later in the 1970s.

FIAT 128 (1969 – 1985) Italy / Europe / (Eastern Bloc)

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, olive green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, light beige, beige, mid brown, light brown, off-white, white, light yellow, mustard, orange, bright green and various metallics in the 1980s.

Morris Marina (1971 – 1980) UK / Commonwealth / Europe / Other

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, tan brown, ochre, light beige, beige, mid brown, light brown, gold, off-white, white, with light yellow, mustard, purple, orange, bright green introduced mid cycle and metallics applied late.

Peugeot 104 (1972 – 1988) France / Europe

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown,, light beige, beige, off-white, white with light red, yellow, tangerine, orange and bright green.

Renault 5 Mk1 (1972 – 1985) France / Europe / North America

Body colours: mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, olive green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, off-white, white, yellow, tangerine, orange and bright green. Black primarily used on specials such as 'Alpine A5', 'Le Car' and 'Turbo' for domestic and export markets. Metallics applied later after the blue 'Gordini'.

Honda Civic Mk1 (1972 – 1979) Japan / North America / Europe / UK

Body colours: black, white, off-white, mid red, dark red, light green, orange, light yellow, mid blue, dark green, dark blue. Metallics, gold, bronze, blue and brown utilised relatively early, dependent upon marketing department's rationale

Datsun B210 / 120Y (1973 – 1978) Japan / North America / Europe / UK

Body colours: white, off-white, mid red, dark red, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid green, dark green, light beige, beige, ochre, light yellow, mid yellow, orange, Few metallics, light blue and light green, applied late in life-cycle for USA only.

Opel Kadett City (1973 – 1979) Germany / Europe

Body colours: black, mid grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, off-white, white, light yellow, mid yellow, tangerine, orange and bright green. Metallics applied toward end of lifecycle.

Austin Allegro (1973 – 1982) UK / Europe

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, tan brown, ochre, light beige, beige, mid brown, light brown, off-white, white, with light yellow, mustard, purple, orange, bright green introduced early cycle and metallics applied late Mk2 and across Mk3.

Toyota Corolla Mk3 / Mk4 (1974 – 1983) Japan / North America / Europe / UK

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, off-white, white, light yellow, tangerine. Metallics including silver, bronze, champagne and blue applied for Mk4.

Volkswagen Golf Mk1 / Rabbit Mk1 (1974 – 1983) Germany / Europe / N.A. / Other

Volkswagen Golf Mk2 / Rabbit Mk2 (1983 – 1992) Germany / Europe / N.A. / Other

Volkswagen Golf Mk3 / Rabbit Mk3 (1992 – 2001) Germany / Europe / N.A. / Other

Volkswagen Golf Mk4 / Rabbit Mk4 (1997 – 2004) Germany / Europe / N.A. / Other

Volkswagen Golf Mk5 / Rabbit Mk5 (2004 – 2008) Germany / Europe / N.A. / Other

Volkswagen Golf Mk6 / Rabbit Mk6 (2008 – 2013) Germany / Europe / N.A. / Other

Body colours: at 1974 introduction: mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, olive green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, off-white, white, light yellow, mid yellow, orange, tangerine. Black, a specific red, and various metallics 'reserved' for GTI variant. Metallics deployed more so on Mk2 onward, exempting long-lived Mk1 cabriolet. Over successive generations the obvious application of differing multi-shades of a core colour palette has been applied.

Vauxhall Chevette (1975 - 1980)

Body colours: black, mid grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, ochre, beige, off-white, white, light yellow, tangerine and bright green. Metallics applied toward end of lifecycle. Performance specials such as 'HS' and 'HSR' given contrasting schemes.

Ford Fiesta Mk1 (1976 – 1983) UK / Germany / Europe / USA

Ford Fiesta Mk2 (1983 – 1989) UK / Germany / Europe

Ford Fiesta Mk3 (1989 – 1997)

Ford Fiesta Mk4 (1995 – 1999) UK / Germany / Europe / Other

Ford Fiesta Mk5 (1999 – 2004)

Ford Fiesta Mk6 (2001 – 2009)

Ford Fiesta Mk7 (2008 – date)

Body colours: first generation colours of: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, dark brown, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, off-white, white, light yellow, tangerine, orange. Metallics initially applied to top-trim 'Ghia' variants, predominantly gold and silver. Sporty XR2 available in silver, black, white and red, as continued in RS1800. Given mass popularity a relatively standard set of broad solid colour palettes for successive generations, with alterations such as metallic light blue etc for XR2i. The sixth generation sporting variants (ST) introduced greater use of decals, specifically 'speed stripes' as marketing differentiator relative to the brands 1960s sporting heritage. This use of decals further deployed on special editions in the “mass customisation” trend started by New Mini. Such actions then allowing for greater efficiencies in manufacturing (paint-shop through-flow). Since Mk1 metallics increasingly deployed across the full range as set by the competitive actions of others, especially Japanese.

FIAT Panda Mk1 (1980 – 1991) Italy / Spain / Europe

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, off-white, white, light yellow, ochre, tangerine. Metallics were latterly applied the Mk2, with the numerous special editions across its full 23 year life in differing decals and schemes.

Ford Escort Mk3 (1980 – 1986) Germany / UK / Europe / N. America / Brazil

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, off-white, white, red-orange, light yellow (NA). Metallics initially applied to top-trim 'Ghia' variant but soon used across other trim levels; black, white, silver and red predominantly used for XR3.

Opel Ascona C / Vauxhall Cavelier Mk2 / Chevy Cavalier Mk1 (1981 - 1988) Germany / Europe / N.A. / Australia

Body colours: black, dark grey, mid grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, beige, butterscotch, white, tangerine, light yellow. Metallics initially applied to top-trim variants but soon used across other trim levels; black, white, silver and red predominantly used for performance variants and for derivative Manta GTE coupe.

Ford Sierra (1982 – 1993)

Body colours: black, dark grey, mid grey, dark red, mid red, light red, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, butterscotch, white, . Given the 'aero' styling (derived from metallic gold Probe 3) metallics were promoted extensively from launch, especially so silver and gold; also applied more broadly across the trim ranges than seen to date. Likewise lighter shades applied from launch to appear more contemporary. Black, white, silver and red predominantly used for performance variant XR4i, XR4x4, Cosworth. Darker formal shades often used on Sapphire variant.

Opel Corsa A / Vauxhall Nova (1982 – 1993) Germany / Europe / Other

Opel Corsa B / Vauxhall Corsa Mk 1(1992 - 2000) Germany / Europe / Other

Opel Corsa C / Vauxhall Corsa Mk2 (2000 - 2006) Germany / Europe / Other ( - 2012)

Body colours: dark grey, light grey, dark grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, off-white, white. Metallics silver, champagne, bronze used on high trim 'A' variants. Black, white, red and yellow predominantly used for 'GT' variant of Mk1 with contrasting lower panels to match 'performance' bumpers. In addition to previous colour palette, Corsa 'B' deployed 'solid' purple, light blue, light green, light yellow with wider range of metallic options. Corsa 'C' predominantly utilises grey metallics with re-introduction of gold and bronze.

FIAT Uno Mk1 (1983 – 1989) Italy / Europe / Brazil / Other

Body colours: light grey, dark grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, white. Metallic silver, champagne, blue etc used later.

Black and red predominantly used for 'Turbo' variant.

Peugeot 205 (1983 -1998) France / Europe

Body colours: mid grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, mid brown, light beige, white. Metallic silver, champagne, blue, green used on higher trim levels.

White with decals used for Rallye variant; black, red, white and silver deployed for 1.6 and 1.9 GTI variants

Opel Kadett E / Vauxhall Astra Mk2 (1984 – 1991) Germany / Europe / UK

Body colours: mid grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, beige, white. Metallic silver, champagne, blue, green used on higher trim levels. Black, red, white and metallics deployed for GTE variants.

Ford Tempo Mk1 / Mk2 (1984 – 1994) North America

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, beige, white. Metallic silver, gold, champagne, blue, green used on higher trim levels.

Honda Accord Mk1 (1976 – 1981) Japan / N.America / Europe

Honda Accord Mk2 (1982 – 1985) Japan / N.America / Europe

Honda Accord Mk3 (1986 – 1989) Japan / N.America / Europe / Other

Honda Accord Mk4 (1990 – 1993)

Honda Accord Mk5 (1994 – 1997)

Honda Accord Mk6 (1998 – 2002)

Honda Accord Mk7 (2003 – 2007)

Honda Accord Mk8 (2008 – 2012)

Honda Accord Mk9 (2013 – date)

Body colours: even from early Mk1, predominantly metallic shades of silver (dark grey, mid grey), champagne, bronze, dark blue, mid blue, light blue and light green. Solids in black, dark red, mid red, light red, mid blue, white. Metallics strategically used to provide product credibility (alongside reliability) and so provide early foundations for segment related premium pricing by the late 1980s. Silver deployed to highlight the brand's perceived technical progressiveness, to gain greater brand gravitas and better display the low-wide body styling of the 1980s; with various reds deployed for sought associated sportiness.

Chevrolet Cavelier Mk1 (1982 – 1987) North America / Australia [Holden]

Chevrolet Cavelier Mk2 (1988 - 1994)

Chevrolet Cavelier Mk3 (1995 - 2005)

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, cream, white. Metallic silver, champagne, bronze, blue shades, green shades and red shades initially used on higher trim level Mk1s. Black, red, white and metallics such as purple deployed for coupe and cabrio variants. Invariably, Mk2 and Mk3s offered broad selection of solids and ever higher proportion of metallics.

Chevrolet S-10 Blazer Mk1 (1983 – 1990) North America / Other

Chevrolet Blazer Mk2 (1995 - 2005)

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, cream, white and yellow. Metallic silver, champagne, bronze, blue shades, green shades and red shades initially used later, but typically higher trim level Mk1s deployed a two-tone paint scheme enabled by defining wrap-around panel swages. Metallics used more intensively in Mk2.

Jeep Cherokee (1984 – 2001) North America / Europe / UK / Other

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, cream, white. Metallic silver, champagne, bronze, blue shades, green shades and red shades initially used later and for export markets. As with Chevy Blazer and Ford Explorer a two-tone paint schemes enabled by slab-sided shape of body and attachment of lower door panels.

Ford Taurus Mk1 (1986 – 1991)

Ford Taurus Mk2 (1992 – 1995)

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, cream, white. Metallic silvers, champagnes, bronze, blue shades, green shades and red shades etc deployed extensively from start to support 'aero' styling and so across the range as either option or standard, dependent upon trim level and options mix.

Toyota Corolla Mk6 (1987 - 1991)

Toyota Corolla Mk7 (1991 - 1995)

Toyota Corolla Mk8 (1995 - 2000)

Toyota Corolla Mk9 (2000 - 2006)

Toyota Corolla Mk10 (2006 - 2013)

Toyota Corolla M11 (2012 – date)

As the historical definition of mainstream reliability and conservativeness, ever since the Mk1 the successive generations have been betrothed to the traditional solids and metallics paint palette.#

Body colours: black, dark grey, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, light green, dark blue, mid blue, light blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, beige, cream, white. Given Corolla's internationalist appeal from early on, Invariably colours orientated toward specific regions and markets, hence white for North American and European rental services aswell as preferred in the Middle-East for both sun reflectivity and price reduction. Metallics appear more so in the mid 1980s (following Honda's lead) in silvers, champagnes, bronze, blue shades, green shades and red shades. Thereafter a standard colour palette, with product differentiation initially gained from features content and product renewal.

Ford Explorer Mk1 (1990 – 1994)

Ford Explorer Mk2 (1995 - 2001)

Ford Explorer Mk3 (2002 - 2005)

Ford Explorer Mk4 (2006 - 2010)

Body colours: black, dark grey, mid grey, dark red, mid red, light red, dark green, mid green, dark blue, mid blue, mid brown, tan brown, light beige, cream, white. Metallic silvers, champagnes, bronze, blue shades, green shades and red shades etc deployed extensively from start to support premium pricing of an SUV, and so across the range as either option or standard, dependent upon trim level and options mix. Since the vehicle was derived from the mid-size Ranger pick-up truck its high front-end 'bumper-line' was transposed across its flanks by way of protective panels, which themselves were painted to body colour or often in Mk1s in obvious contrast. Versions such as the 'Eddie Bauer' special receiving an upscale colour treatment to suit interior fitments and features package.

[NB Explorer was derived from the Ranger pick-up chassis and powertrain. Whilst pick-ups – most predominantly F-series – are of major personal mobility significance in N.America, these have been

omitted from the survey given the over-riding aspect that the majority are sold by dealers to commercial entities (major fleets to sole proprietors), thereafter sold-on to the public for private use. Although a fair proportion of medium size pick-ups are sold privately].

Renault Clio Mk1 (1990 – 1998)

Renault Clio Mk2 (1998 – 2012)

Renault Clio Mk3 (2012 – date)

Metallics deployed extensively from launch to maintain ongoing improvement in brand identity, so silvers, champagnes, bronze, blues, greens, red shades etc deployed, especially for brand equity improvement in important export markets such as Germany and UK. Also, sought to break the over-used norm of the 1980s hot-hatchback segment in the use of black, white and red by also utilising metallics for 16V, Williams and later vivid metallics such as yellow on RS.

Toyota Camry (Wide Body) Mk1 (1991 – 1996) N. America / Australia / Other

Toyota Camry (Wide Body) Mk2 (1996 - 2001)

Toyota Camry (Wide Body) Mk3 (2001 - 2006)

Toyota Camry (Wide Body) Mk4 (2006 - 2011)

Toyota Camry (Wide Body) Mk5 (2011 - date)

Body colours: Long before the 1990s metallics a basic expectation in the 'exec / large' segment, so use of silvers, champagnes, light bronze, blues, greens, reds. However, 'solids' in black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, dark blue, mid blue, cream, white. Specific editions of light colour cars made available with contrasting darker sill and lower door colour (under moulding) to provide two-tone effect and match similar coloured bumpers.

[NB it should be recognised that the ex-factory colours made available on (wide) Camry have changed little over successive generations, and is indicative of a largely “set” metallic colour palette from most manufacturers since the mid 1980s; hence the ever greater reliance on vehicle features over the last 30 years, the Japanese domestic market – where narrow body Camry operates – historically the live 'test-bed' prior to export].

Renault Twingo Mk1 (1992 – 2007)

Body colours: initially specifically “happy” to mimic persona of car, so red, yellow, green and blue, with later mid grey, mid red, light red, light green (acqua), light blue, mid blue, purple, white, yellow, orange, tangerine and ochre. However, light to dark metallics used later so as to provide product life-cycle extension by expanding and partially repositioning Twingo's playful identity, now as comfortable city-car vs foreign and French competition. market.

Chrysler Concorde (1993 – 1997)

Chrysler Concorde (1997 – 2004)

Body colours: black, mid grey, light grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, dark blue, mid blue, cream, white. Metallics used extensively from launch given upmarket expectation and to flatter organic / aero 'cab forward' style. Hence, gold, silvers, champagnes, bronze, blue, green, red etc. Strategic use of standard 'solid' colours for lower priced Dodge and (later discontinued) Eagle versions of the bodyshell.

Ford Focus Mk1 (1998 - 2004) Germany / UK / Europe / N. America / Other

Ford Focus Mk2 (2004 - 2011)

Ford Focus Mk3 (2011 - date)

As successor to the Escort, the paint palette of the Focus was unsurpringly inherited; though design and marketing choices did alter the palette to gain a greater metallic content (in both colour choice and paint structure) so as to best display the then crisper 'new edge' styling approach.

Body colours (metallic): silvers, champagnes, bronze, blue shades, green shades, red shades etc. Standard 'solid' colours: black, dark grey, dark red, mid red, dark green, dark blue, mid blue, cream, white. Given the conventionality of the vehicle bright solid colours rarely used in Mk1 form, exceptions being the SVT special in the USA in mid yellow, given the bodystyle's orientation to metallic. However a subtle reversal of the 'new edge' theme toward a softened 'kinetic design' in Mk2 and Mk3 has allowed for the return of soft and bright solid shades, with the Mk3 notably being presented with such possibilities in yellow and green, aswell as a similar 'retro-return' to metallic gold and bronze (a la Cortina), aswell as the philosophically merged worlds of bright metallics such as yellow etc; though these often represent advertised 'halo' models as opposed to the majority of conventional colour choices by private buyers.

New Mini Mk1 (2001 - 2006) Germany / UK / Europe / N. America / Other

New Mini Mk2 (2007 - 2013)

New Mini Mk3 (2014 onward)

Body: the Mk1 predominantly in 'solids' of black, white, mid red, light yellow, purple and metallics of silver, mid blue, light blue and mid green. However, whilst decal customisation specials had been normal for low series production special editions, BMW sought to resurrect the ideology of 'mass customisation', last seen in 1950s Detroit but not truly achieved given innate conservativeness of the public.

To do so with required commercial efficiency BMW recognised the answer lay in an expanding set overlaid decorative decals (easily printed and attached by factory or dealership) placed upon over a relatively limited paint palette, itself applied as two-tone as necessary. So as to gain from paint procurement scale volumes and associated paint-shop handling efficiencies; so as to create a seemingly endless combination of 'looks'. Thus “offering more through less” via creation of a business model in which “less is more”. Thus the Mk1 appeared in Base, Cooper and Cooper S form – so setting the distinct aesthetic and performance packages – reliant upon “user-chooser” graphic options to personalise the vehicle.

Simultaneously, the growth of the vehicle decoration sector in commercial vans - for sophisticated bodyside advertising – fed back into Mini's private popularity, with various enterprises using commercial body-wraps, the most famous being the then London-centric Foxtons estate agency. Such examples then prompted young and 'young at heart' private buyers of the Mk1 New Mini- who themselves were products of a very visual, graphics orientaed environment - to become more daring in their own choices; BMW expanding the decal choices made available to a demanding public.

The expansion of body-styles for Mk2 and Mk3 New Minis has then helped retain the core customer base as it goes through life changes (family etc) and given conquest sales from other brands; the different variants providing more or less 'mass customisation' as perceived by BMW.

[NB In extremis, the full body wrap has been previously prohibitively expensive, and so the preserve of wealthy clients as applied to sportscars. But are now increasingly being offered by adopter-imitators, such as FIAT's deployment for Abarth].

To End -

As seen, this final portion of the weblog demonstrates the depth of research undertaken to finally answer the seemingly age old question as to whether car colours can be relied upon as actual economic indicators or not.

That posed question / hypothesis - previously answered in Part 2 - showing a balance of both truism and falsehood over a full century of observation, from the evidence herein.

This then at least a useful conclusion.

Yet what has become noticeable from the turn of the 21^st century onward is the automotive industry's shifting perspectives regards its necessary technical and commercial historical connection to conventional paint; given its inherent industrial complexities, real world short-comings and costs. Whilst paint as we know it is obviously still endemic, the very nature of cosmetic vehicle cover is slowly being re-considered and re-calibrated.

Whilst the unpainted stainless steel De Lorean of the early 1980s was a step forward, the first real advances in this direction were initiated by Daimler-Swatch in the original Smart concept and prototypes; with easily detatchable and switchable "in-colour" panels intended to reflect the ever changing fashion wardrobe.

Such "easy" cosmetic transformation now enabled by the increasingly popular “car wrap”.
(Herein there is the ironic possibility that because the same method is used for manufacturers' disguise of testing prototypes, such “camouflage wraps” become street trendy, as has been the case with clothes).

What is now accepted is that this century continues to demonstrate and promise ever stronger personal and product ties, with user-psychology dialled into the new product development process, leading to ever greater product individualism via self-customisation.

Any future of economic divination which seeks to view cars as socio-economic indicator, within an age of even greater “manufactured individualism”, may well depend upon an ability by sector analysts, manufacturers and asset managers alike to interpret such new vehicle "tattoo readings". Most simply mass trends of graphic complexity vs simplicity, and at the level of the single individual the difference in self-applied apparent public extroversion on external bodywork vs perhaps a self-created internal introversion within the private cabin area.

Reading the future then is critical to many vested interests, so that all concerned may profitably interact. 

Investors then should spend more time appreciating whether car companies command such socio-technical subtleties (as BMW did) – with cultural colour psychology only the start - rather than simply being unfoundedly over-optimistic by the re-appearance of the odd orange, yellow or green car.

As the asset management sector itself knows, whilst such observations do seem interesting examples of positive outlook verification, the apportioning of valuable investment funds relies far, far more on much deeper appreciation of PESTEL issues and the interaction of enterprise.

Micro Level Trends – Social Economic Indicators – Skirt Lengths and Car Colours...Fact, Fiction or Half Truth Hyperbole. (Part 2)

Previously it was demonstrated that the seemingly age-old mantra about the rising hemlines of shorter skirts being reflective of rising tide in economic fortunes, was essentially a misnomer.

This specific hyperbole emerged in the mid 1960s and saturated the popular opinions of various commercial sectors, but in fact runs counter to much of the 20^th century's corollary of fashion and finance.

Similarly to Part 1, this Part 2 likewise reviews (but to greater depth) whether the similarly engrained perception and rhetoric that ”rising economic fortunes observed via the colours of cars” has much, partial or no fundamental foundation.

The convention obviously has it that economic upturns are visibly and tangibly demonstrated by the purchase of vehicles with brighter, happier, “optimistic” colours.

Colour in Context -

Colour in nature is created by the visually recognised material body refraction of a very specific wavelength from within the multi-coloured 'white light' spectrum. Very simplistically, an object which scatters all wavelengths appears white, whilst that which absorbs all wavelengths appears black.

The discovery of fire-light and mankind's later invention of gas and electric lighting types, whilst positive, obviously adulterates the natural daylight basis of colouration.

Human use of colouration (and pattern) to depict tribal differentiation and social order is prevalent through social history and across all continents The primary ability to differentiate through colour originally dependent upon the natural availability of multi-coloured pigments and substances from flora, fauna and minerals.

As is typical with supply and demand dynamics, rare or new colours, either from distant natural sources or from new industrial methods have been highly prized. Such as with Renaissance era artists and their Church patrons regards the vibrant blue pigment of lapis lazuli of ground-down lazurite. Likewise, in the case of hierarchical display through vestments, Royal and Church adoption of purple was prevalent until its 'industrial invention', mass manufacture by German chemists in the 1880s, paving the way to popular mass application.

The extrapolation of oil based paints from origins upon the artists pallet into the commercially driven realms of domestic interiors and exteriors – applied for distinct identity and as a protective coating over structural and ornamental woods – meant that oil paints were inevitably similarly applied to (largely wooden) horse drawn vehicles. This so from fine carriages to inter-regional coaches to functional wagons, so as to provide for the instincts of either social differentiation via personal livery (notionally inspired by household heraldic colours and much imitated), or specific service identification such as postal coaches or brewery drays, displaying corporate colours.

The demand for difference then created a fervency in industry to create an ever wider spectrum of both painted colour applications and likewise dyed applications for textiles and such (clothing, linen, carpeting, flock wallpaper etc).

As such the 20^th century began with a major wave of 'colour consumerism', with colours themselves having far greater psychological impact in such advanced economies given their inferred value laden social overtones – far more so than today. As with the social language of presented flowers, those associations no doubt subtly promoted to popularise 'colour consumption' itself.

20^th century consumerism gained enormously from a seemingly infinite palette of colours made available, the plethora most concisely displayed by the extended “colour wheel”.

Yet it has been social fashions ostensibly created by the collaboration of media and industry which have paved the way for colour preference, consumers swayed into typically cyclical periods of colour (and pattern) choice; necessarily far quicker in seasonal clothing fashions, and slower regards 'new era' interior designs.

The extrapolation of association-based consumer psychology – from the 1920s onward - means that colours themselves have become promoted through the use of exotic shade-names. Such marketing methodology finessed by the auto-sector itself in the 1950s, with the variously emotive names of car models and variants given yet further emotive resonance from the names of their painted overlays.

Today colour and 'lifestyle' marketing have become so entwined that the once various shades of basic beige have become 'designer-labelled' (ie Kelly Hoppen).

The Evolution of Car Colours -

The very first cars (horseless carriages) were the low-volume manufactured off-spring of proven prototypes. With a purely a functional remit little, if any, colour aesthetic was applied. Thus, the very earliest productionised cars were inevitably black given functional remit, using hard, stove-type paints for toughness and ability to visually hide the mud and dirt from unsealed roads.

Improved capability and durability of the basic vehicles thereafter prompted further demands from prospective customers, inevitably wealthy early adopters who sought a 'carry-over' of horse-drawn carriage equipment. These included weather protective hood or fully enclosed body, external forward lighting (used not for forward vision but to warn oncoming road users to stand clear), and application personal livery (colour) decoration of the individual or household. This applied to the main body, as the 'under-carriage' and typically fenders necessarily remained black.

Such 'brass-age' (Victorian and Edwardian era) vehicles utilised the range of standard lead based paints, often applied by the increasing array of coach-work firms (as the early auto-sector split into chassis and body producers) with the painted body often incorporating not only customer requested livery but also specific detailed paint-scheme 'flourishes' (“coach-lines”) which were a form of decorative signature script.

[NB This artform was also playfully resurrected during the Californian hotrod era, is used by the SoCal lowrider groups and more formally is often seen on contemporary Rolls-Royce vehicles as a marque signature].

Whatever the livery or associated coach-lines, even before WW1 a vast array of colours had been created in German, British, French and American paint laboratories.

Thus, the primary colours of green, yellow and red were deployed, and mixed to provide secondary colours of blue, orange and purple, with white and black also added as whole colours in their own right and as shade determinants for lighter and darker shades of primary and secondary colours. Tertiary colours such as brown created by further cross-mixing. In the cases of natural colours such as brown, as feasible paint creators might re-utilise the old hand-crafted natural pigmentation methods of ground minerals mixed with oils, though upon industrial scale.

This then provided true customisation possibilities of the wealthy, toward either strict or loose adherence to family colours; whether truly dynastic or self-styled by aspirant nouveau riche.

However, much of the wealth was held by incoming parvenus who often sought approval from those already holding position, and so decorated their vehicles in 'tasteful' darker shades (green, red, blue) to avoid social faux pas. Ironically reactionary portions of the upper echelon (often the true old guard itself) instead intentionally chose bright, even garish colours, so as to retain social differentiation from their 'underlings'.

As such yellow was a favoured colour (contrasted with black), since as with the intentional adoption of white collars and clothing centuries earlier, it must be kept clean, thus inferring a retinue of household staff and so wealth. (see the film 'Gosford Park'). (Other examples of such vehicles re-contextualised appear in 'Goldfinger' per reflective plutocracy and 'The Darling Buds of May' as per notionally democratic yet traditionalist social re-orientation].

However, by the end of the 'brass age' ( ie post 1918) a broader taste for brightness and specifically yellow had been promoted, especially within the more liberal, far less war ravaged USA, a taste which spread to the 'young bright things' of London, Paris and Berlin.

Around this time progress in paint chemistry was made with the introduction of fine 'paint fillers'. So giving rise to new alternative offerings, such as “chromium yellow” - a deeper lustre and body than available yellow to date. Though far too brash for most, it was much sought and became almost symbolic of the young, monied, hedonistic set. (Aldus Huxley satirical 1921 book 'Crome Yellow' laments the trend. Its cover-page picture uses a cropped version of Constable's 'The Haywain', ousting field and cart to highlight the implicit loss of venerable countryside values to urban “machine age” ways).

Another major effect on each nation's consumer preferences was the social impact of international automotive competition; specifically adoption of individual national colours: British (Racing) Green, French Blue, German White and Italian Red. Though originating at the turn of the century, the sport was not truly in the public eye until the 1920s, an economically expansionary period when self-identity could be boosted through vehicle purchase with nationalistic overtones.

[NB Though it is now an accepted truism that Germany swapped to 'silver' to negate the weight if white paint, so leaving bare the metal shell, it is as likely the change was made to demonstrate the prevailing German ideology of technical, and so national, prowess].

However, as with earlier domestic and industrial paints, firms seeking to serve the burgeoning mass market in cars seemingly sought to limit the wide range of colours available to the vehicle industry; so as to financially gain from the production of single colour batches in major volumes, thereby gaining massive economies of scale.

This together with the visually conservative tastes of late 19^th century meant that in actuality only a relatively small range of colours was to be popularised for mass market adoption.

For the most part these included the much darker, less frivolous, shades of green, blue and red, though this restriction was more prevalent in the UK than historically more liberal continental Europe.

Over the following years, this restricted colour palette remained especially on cheaper small and practical cars. And similarly for practicality and cost savings, the “chassis-black” treatment remained on chassis, fenders, running boards (if fitted) and often “coal-scuttle” engine cover.

[NB so named because of its overall shape widening from engine to cabin].

As body-styles proliferated so models from the 'teens and twenties tended to have “split personalities”, especially so in the USA, regards their colouration. Much depending upon length of the wheelbase. Shorter wheelbase 2 doors with folding roofs (runabouts and sportsters) tended to mid and maybe even light colours, whilst longer wheelbase 4 doors with folding roofs (tourers) tended to mid colours, and longer wheelbase 4 doors with enclosed bodies (sedans and limousines) tended darker colour shades.

Colour offerings and choices then reflecting the perceived formality of the vehicle, even when the base vehicle was technically very similar.

Furthermore, two and four door bodied cars were often painted in 2-tone, with a black upper body to visually balance the black lower chassis items and add an essence of visually similar sportiness as seen by the black hoods of sportsters and tourers. Unsurprisingly to add personalisation, the relatively smaller number of performance orientated SWB open-top back Sportster and 'Boat Tail' vehicles with often bespoke ordered 'racy' colour schemes, whilst the LWB 'Landaulette' with both solid and folding roofs often used a juxtaposition of colour and overlaid pattern to suggest coach-trimmed craftsmanship and sophistication..

[NB For decades some vintage car owners seek to renovate their cars what what they mistakenly view as period colours; bright yellow on black the most blatant. This was especially prevalent during the 1960s when such cars were momentarily en vogue in popular culture (wall print pictures etc). Yet whilst unquestionably such bright colours were available at the time given technical paint progress, such “ostentatious” colours were avoided by the majority of manufacturers and buyers, especially so on low cost populist models]

Though less so in N.America, WW2 had an obvious affect on private and commercial car ownership across the UK and Europe, with most materials (especially steel) and production facilities directed to vehicles and armaments; likewise with re-appropriation of petrol and diesel fuels. Vehicle production colours henceforth were largely the military 'drab' shades of grey, blue, green, brown and beige ordered by the forces

[NB Yesteryear stories maintained that many family cars were simply “put up on blocks” for the war's duration given the inability to obtain fuel and drive very far. Yet much of the upper-middle social bracket with directorial roles and responsibilities did indeed retain usage of their cars on an everyday basis, with larger fuel rations ensuring an ability to travel weekdays for work, and also (with stored petrol) at the weekend, for country jaunts etc.

So whilst some old black and white film footage, and critically period film and TV productions, would have it that UK mobility was reliant upon black Ford Prefects with white painted fenders edges (so as to be seen at night by another vehicle's own semi-masked headlamps), the modern image of the war-time being devoid of car colours is a complete misnomer].

Wartime privation meant that immediately post-war, people were ready to resume normality as quickly as possible. With new car production not yet enabled, the used car market boomed by the return of decommissioned family cars and the 'civvy street' influx of ex-military cars. As part of that period vehicle paint workshops likewise boomed as not so scrupulous car dealers bought-up previously garaged cars and ex-military cars, gave them scant attention to get them operable again as needed and gave them a “new lick of paint” in brighter colours to be sold onward “almost as new”.

Now effectively forgotten, it was this commercial process, undertaken in the back-streets of light-engineering workshops in the inner cities, that inadvertently influenced the new car colour palette trend for the 1950s.

After the heavy formal colours of the 1930s and the military drab of the 1940s, though for the most part such darker shades of green, blue and red were retained by car producers – themselves seeking to “get back” to normal - the 1950s saw a new proclivity toward the application of lighter tones of green, blue and red and cream. Whilst not 'bright' per se, and only a small percentage of overall new car production volumes, this was an obvious contrast to the traditional norm. This new-colour era was also assisted by the application of such shades on new sports-cars of the day (which actually retained its pre-war colour preferences), but with trickle-down into small mainstream saloons, which a new generation was purchasing, often for the first time.

Given that the USA had intrinsically been more experimental with car colours (utilising lighter shades earlier), and experienced a greater normality throughout WW2, when likewise the post-war economy re-grew, its consumer expectations were obviously higher than that of the UK or Europe.

To help create a new 1950s consumer era Detroit car-makers recognised that wholly new visual cues were needed to help fulfil middle-class consumer aspirations of upward social mobility; oft into new suburban neighbourhoods. So it was that a true styling paradox was created; a proliferation of bright-work mated to hard edged jet-age inspired body styling, itself was ironically coated with very light, soft shades of pastels. Shades from contemporary Parisienne haute couture and the art deco facades of Miami's South Beach, both inspired by 18^th century water-colours, foreign and domestic wonderlands attainable via by jet-plane.

Throughout artistic history subtlety had been imbued by natural pastel shades, as opposed to the unnatural brightness (read metallica) of the machine-age (see Futurism). But the chrome-laden land-barges of Buick, Oldsmobile, Plymouth, De Soto, Mercury and Edsel sought ever new visual combinations to create a 'love of the new' and likewise believe that they were serving increasingly educated, informed and cultured American middle-class. This period, before an age of decals and mass-customisation, now seen as a golden age of conventional colour-led car consumerism. Although the American 1950s is recognised for its application of pastel shades (on much from cars to fridges to typewriters), as with earlier eras, it must be noted that the public predominantly bought cars in 'safe' traditional colours. The media blasted high lifestyle adverts were indeed appealing, but many felt happier with convention.

By the very end of this decade however two distinct body and colour trends were emerging from the paint laboratories and styling studios and of the leading corporations. Firstly, those much vaunted Parisienne pastels were being supplanted by a new wave of more technological “metal-flake” colours, which started to promote new, extended possibilities and personalities for standard dark and mid colour ranges. Secondly, a simpler, far more restrained 'Internationalist' (modernist) European design influence started to assert itself over the engrained domestic “Jetson's Futurism”.

[NB the path of paint technology is somewhat paradoxical to style trends, since the metallic paints created would have been far better philosophically suited to the 1950s 'tail fin' era, whilst pastels would have been better suited to the 'block surfaces' of the 1960s]

As is well recognised by now, even with the 1929 stock-market crash, the USA experienced a very different 20^th century evolutionary pathway compared to far more war torn UK and war ravaged Europe. This marked difference very apparent by each region's respective standard of living by the mid 1950s, even if some European car marques owned by one American interests (GM) sought to mimic the ideology of 'in-built obsolescence' (in the Opel Olympia Rekord) for the remaining thin cohort of the semi-comfortably-off European middle classes. However, the 1960s would see a greater coupling of transatlantic economic ties and also critically automotive trends.

So by the early 1960s, even though the social cautiousness and traditionalist social-conformation of the UK's middle classes still meant that the majority of new car sales were in the 'classical' darker shades of green, blue and red, aswell as brown, off-white and lessening black, an increasing acceptance of lighter shades for these core colours had filtered through.

This very much helped by the the increasing prevalence of smaller 1950s cars (eg Austin A30) in mid and light tones, and by the indirect influence of American films and direct influence of Detroit' increasingly pan-regionally harmonised product planning, paint procurement and marketing activities. Such efforts perhaps best exemplified by the synergised efforts of Ford USA, Ford of Britain and Ford of Germany with products like the Anglia, Consul Capri, Mk1 and Mk2 Cortina, Mk 1 Escort and Mk1 Capri. All gaining American flavours, including mid and light shade colour options, and specifically by late decade the adoption of metallics (typically silver, gold and bronze) on the Mk4 Zephyr and top-trim level on Mk2 Cortina.

[NB the metallic silver initially used mid decade by premium makers such as Aston Martin and Mercedes-Benz 600 'Pullman', so giving mainstream market cars with such colour immediate cache].

The fact is however, that the far slower post WW2 economic rebound of Europe demonstrated itself into the 1960s; with much mobility still via scooter and motorcycle, this reality the very opposite of the received (export culture) wisdom about French fashionability and coffee-culture led Italian Modernism. As American families were effectively downsizing from over-bloated full-size into mid-size cars (eg Ford Falcon), and the British families were transcending up the ladder from small cars (eg Austin A30) into compacts (eg Austin 1100), so European families were at last gaining enclosed mobility from affordable utility and small cars (eg VW “Kafer” [Beetle] / Citroen 2CV / Renault 4 / FIAT 600 “Seicento” and new 500 “Nuovo Cinquecento”.).

Such cars had been intentionally designed prior to and after WW2 as low cost, affordable products for the masses, but given the necessary fact that mass mobility had been initially served by lower priced scooters and micro-vehicles (Vespa, Vespa Ape, BMW Isetta) based on low incomes, there was an unavoidable consequential time lag in the re-appearance of “proper cars”.

In order to gain as affordable price as possible yet also provide profitability for vehicle manufacturers, paint scheme options were initially very limited. The vast majority of early cars produced in light and mid grey, and light, mid and dark blue, with later appearances of green (dark and mid), red (dark) and white. Thereafter other colours such as beige. There origins, tendency for very limited feature improvement and typically far longer production life-spans meant that manufacturers relied upon paint colours far more so than typical cars. As seen with the earliest mass market cars, to initially reduce supply-side BOM (bill of material) procurement costs, and latterly to try and boost demand-side consumer appeal, as part of its innate character, given the product's lack of absolute specification, options and accessories.

Fortunately for VW, Citroen, Renault and FIAT, the emergence of the late 1960s and early 1970s recession, coupled with the 1973 oil crisis, meant that the lifespan of such fuel efficient and inexpensive cars – which were previously threatened as theoretically obsolete - was indeed extended.

Yet recognising that lightweight structures and simple mechanics were not enough in the growing competitive climate – especially so by imported Japanese cars that were “value for money”, reliable and feature-packed – European producers turned back to the realm of colour psychology, as previously practised by 1950s America.

This time however, rather than subtle hues of pastels, marketeers turned to the visual vibrancy of the late era counter-culture hippy movement; portions of which had actually adopted their cars as their own. That very audience and those on its influenced fringes were now older, proactive consumers, yet with a retained sense of counter-culture spirit, even if ironically communicated through purchase choice.

Thus for what was effectively the first time in the mainstream UK and European car market, an explosion of what could be described as “bright...happy...optimistic” colours were introduced: specifically vibrant orange, yellow, red, green and blue. The VW 'Jeans' Beetle perhaps the best example of the genre, itself including edition decals and dedicated denim seat coverings.

However, having seen the loud colour-schemes of US muscle cars in the late 1960s and early 1970s, closely allied the marketed use of 'colour psychology', and the resurgence of yesteryear utilitarian cars, the previously conservative Japanese by way of Toyota, Datsun and Honda, released their new product lines in equally audacious colours. Soon to follow were the larger and more expensive mainstream models, by Ford, GM and Chrysler-Rootes, with bright colour options made available.

The 1970s was then the defining era of “bright coloured cars”. Yet this decade was one of economic stagnation, not growth. And those bright colours effectively acted as a consumer band-aid, which along with media-led trends such as space-age futurism, novelty and disco music and the cultural hub of television, maintain a level of desperately required economic momentum, which under stagflation reality and union strikes across the west could have been far worse.

Whilst economic malaise persisted into the early 1980s, economic reforms (especially so in the UK and USA) soon created a contrasting zeitgeist. Though much media-hyped, the 'go-getter' attitude of entrepreneurship and collective capitalism became very apparent in the broad consumer popularity of aggressive shades of mid red; that colour impetus deriving from 'City Boy' 911 and 944 Porsches (the phenomena helping to spawn lowly 924) and fabled as deriving from the red braces of era. That trend transmuting to the Golf GTI (previously oft black), into other hot hatchbacks and throughout the majority of car types. This increased trend, together with a renewal of darker shades of blue, black and predominance of metallic silver (ie Ford Sierra) markedly diminished market interest in green.

The early 1990s saw recession. To counter a decline in car purchase behaviour, insightful manufacturers returned to the powerful notion of colour psychology allied with affordability, character and functionality. Essentially a back to the '70s perspective. Whilst less well managed others (eg soon to be defunct Rover Group) were unresponsive, typically burning cash.

Renault created the landmark Twingo, which managed to merged the traits of Clio's youthful aspiration with monobox packaging, flexible interior and importantly the application of pastel hues taken from youth fashion and the prominence of post-modernism architecture. The car stood very separate from a 'me-too' crowd of competitors, yet was far more relevant to 'in-crowd' early adopter buyers across the age range. The very obscurity of pastels in auto circles made it fresh to fashion informed new eyes. Moreover, unlike America's Euro pastel applications on chrome barges during the 50s, the hues suited Renault's friendly product size and 'face'.

Similar understanding was appreciated at Nissan, when during the same product development period, less radically applied pastel to its various retro-inspired PIKE series cars (Figaro, S-Cargo, Pao, Be-1).

However, the recession period was relatively short, and manufacturers maintained standard colour schemes. Further progress in paint technologies meant that by mid decade a new pallet of pearlescent colours had become available. More subtle than metallic with greater in-colour contrast (by the use of dark and light filler materials). Initially viewed as a breakthrough for yet another new era of colour, its very sophistication and greater susceptibility to UV light created complexities for old vs new paint colour matching on crash repair work, so stalled its mass adoption. As part of its own corporate and MG marque rebound strategy at the time Rover Group used it on the MG-F sportscar (typically purple). Since the paint has primarily been used by after-market customisation / personalisation companies and by the youth market on used performance cars.

Of greatest note for the 1990s was the mass adoption of mid red and return of black, both seen as aspirational colours, greater influx of mid and dark blue (the latter essentially a sibling to black), whilst green tended to disappear (except as mentioned in Europe in pastel form on Twingo).

The 2000s continued the ideology of 'mass aspirationalism' and likewise the generally preferred car colours across the USA, UK and Europe remained static. The only difference being greater proclivity for mid blue in the USA and UK, whilst Europe took on a proportionately greater increase in mid red (possibly a lag effect from).

Similarly, the 2010s have remained relatively constant, the only real trend of late being the shift from “classic black” to “neo-white” for some buyers amongst premium badged cars, no doubt seeking their own differentiation from the 'me too' mainstream crowd in B and C segment vehicles. (And of course the expected re-re-introduction of pastels on retro inspired models such as New Mini and New 500 to inject a further sense of their predecessor's spirit; and so apparent brand integrity and value)

Interestingly, this shift to white appears to have been manufacturer promoted, previous years of international motor-shows more concentrated with white display vehicles. Hence promoting this trend to white appears to have more than a sense of the 'fashionista' about it.

In the post 2008/9 period, with previously heavily declined sales volumes and major impact on top and bottom lines of the income statement, producers once again returned to notions of basic business practice regards input costs and ex-factory pricing elasticity. Given that within the manufacturing process of the paint shop under-coat primers tend to be white and grey (mustard now much less used), it is only logical that the promotion of similar coloured paints will require less coats (layers) to provide the required visual depth and sheen; so saving costs.

Thus in a small sense the 2010s have seen a return to Henry Ford's rationalisation of his famed black. Furthermore, the public's preference for a more limited range of classic upscale colours as solids and metallics, somewhat echoes the more limited colour options last seen in the 1910s and 1920s. This coalition of colour demand and supply where perceived consumer taste meets reduced procurement and process variation, will aid producer's input and operational costs during what presently is a better, but still largely cautious operating period.

Conclusion

This web-log sought to better appreciate whether there is indeed an irrefutable truth in the social observer's adage that “brighter car colours reflect consumer optimism and a growing economy”. This rhetoric hailed historically by social observers and various fund managers.

It was shown in Part 1 that the similar belief regards the height of skirt hemlines was effectively unfounded, based upon a hyperbole that had seen the truism in the mid 1960s.

But does this same miscomprehension also apply to “brighter car colours” reflecting a growing economy?

The basic learning captured herein demonstrates the answer as both “yes” and “no”.

Yes, in so much as during the first quarter of the 20^th century those regions experiencing comparatively rapid economic growth (USA and Europe) did see a profusion of lighter shades of green, red and blue in mainstream purchases as contrast to traditional darker shades, with also for the wealthy, young and daring a liking of pale and bright yellows.

Yes, in so much that such lighter colours became more of a mainstay in the conspicuous consumer peak that was 1950s America, this move prompting Detroit to offer relatively radical pastels on its mass aspiration 'near luxury' marques.

No, in so much as during the late 1960s, when the USA was experiencing contraction and Detroit saw volume sales decline, it reacted with ever greater focus on high margin muscle-cars and personal cars, with bright yellow, orange, green and purple paint-schemes with decals. The cars have become icons, but the economic backdrop forgotten.

No, in so much as by the beginning of the economically stagnant 1970s the use of pro-consumption consumer colour psychology (in bright yellow, bright orange, bright green) was re-deployed by the producers of characterful utilitarian models, toward an ironically anti-consumer audience. The gambit was successful in partially supporting the overall poor VM profitability of the period, but certainly did not reflect notions of strongly growing (USA, UK or Euro) economies.

To investment-auto-motives these chronological case studies highlight the fact that there is both partial truth and partial untruth about the “bright colour” economic hypothesis.

The fact is that given the enormous manufacturing and retail facilities costs, capital equipment costs, overhead costs and labour costs within the automotive sector – from its earliest days – the industry has always sought to battle the headwinds of short, mid and long-term economic downturns as best it can. To this end (as demonstrated) it produces and offers light coloured and brightly coloured passenger cars – typically small, functional and affordable - to what it knows to be a relatively down-beat mass consumer base. Recognising that in any recession there will be a relatively small audience for an up-beat proposition.

However, the ultimate success of such a car (in the eyes of the buyer, VM and domestic economy) depends upon a combination of factors including: the severity of the recession (B2C and B2B confidence and credit contraction), the fundamental USP of the specific 'bright car' and the societal context (ie social strata) it can surpass. The early 1960s Mini and early 1990s Twingo where each pitched perfectly as classless cars riding strong economic rebound years.

The big picture pertinent point here is that Mini reputedly became only profitable by the late 1960s, yet partially promoted other Austin-Morris cars for the overall good of the UK economy at the time, whilst Twingo was profitable early in its life-cycle, so boosting Renault's fortunes and the French economy.

Parting Shot -

With this recognition, auto-sector investors should not necessarily believe the all too easily promoted idea about “brightly coloured cars”, and should instead be hectoring the VM auto-producers about the necessity to create meaningful and affordable consumer products during an age when consumer credit is still rightly constrained across the western hemisphere.